and to put pressure on state institutions were not able to generate sufficient momentum to enlist growing and broad-based participation of the people. Staff at Seva Mandir concluded that people were not ready psychologically to eschew the economic and political benefits of existing power relations. For change to happen, people would have to build horizontal ties of solidarity among themselves and dilute their vertical connections, which often are patron-client relationships. One difficulty is that vertical relations, because of the access to power, are more likely to secure shortterm benefits and provide a sense of security to poor people.

Federations as a Means to Strengthen the Power of Local Organizations

In countries such as India and the Philippines, the emergence of federations of community organizations is beginning to alter the conditions that inhibit local organizations from breaking away from vertical relations of dependence. Although external facilitators may provide the initial linkage, and are still desirable for resolving conflicts and encouraging full participation, community groups increasingly are reaching out to form horizontal relationships. For example, in Gujarat, India, the Vikram Sarabhai Centre for Development Interaction (VIKSAT) has facilitated a growing informal association (parishad) of community JFM institutions. This association, which initially convened five village tree growers' cooperatives with whom VIKSAT worked, now includes more than 40 cooperatives that meet faithfully once a month. A small newsletter serves the group, and exchanges with village JFM institutions in other parts of the state are beginning to occur. Federations like this one provide an alternative means of organizing and strengthening local institutions. Horizontal linkages among women and others also have the potential to empower groups that are disadvantaged within their own communities.